Crystal Elements of Color
REAL CRYSTAL COLOR WHEEL

37,

DIOPTASE, CuSiO2[OH]2, H5, SG-3.3, trigonal, opaque.
  COPPER, Dark-turquoise standard color, #10,[CCCY], idiochromatic, brittle. An ideal native pigment.

38,
CHRYSOCOLLA, [Cu,Al]₂H₂Si₂O₅[OH]4.nH₂O, H2, (with quartz H7), SG-2,6, monoclinic aggregate, idiochromatic copper.
  COPPER, turquoise standard color, 12RCW#10, [CCCY], pale opaque.
  Rare crushed opaque pigment, replaced by man made Egyptian frit for a huge market by the Phoenicians.

39,
PHENAKITE, Be₂SiO₄, H7.5, SG-3, trigonal rhombohedral crystals, clear, allochromatic, triadic. NOTICE: CLEAR IS OPPOSITE OPAQUE. WHITE IS A TRANSLUCENT TO OPAQUE COLOR, NOT CLEAR. CLEAR HAS NO WHITE IN IT.
  BERYLLIUM, magenta, cyan, yellow, all pale and transparent.
ANOTHER ALL COLOR CRYSTAL. 

40,
WOLLASTONITE, CaSiO₃, H5, SG-3, triclinic, tabular or masses. White opaque, orange fluorescence.

41,
DIOPSIDE, CaMgSi₂O₆, H6, monoclinic.
  MAGNESIUM, yellow-green or purple [opposites], internal coloring.
  CHROMIUM, dark green. Brittle translucent, foreign coloring. 

42,
SPHENE, CaTiSiO₅, H5.5, SG-3.5, monoclinic wedged shaped crystals and masses.
  TITANIUM, yellow-green or yellow, to brown with neutral dark areas, in a transparent crystal. Centering yellow to neutral dark, through warm brown, is a common trait observed with titanium and iron. This is the way my coloring wheel works with yellow going to Brown as the neutral dark instead of Black. To reach Black, one would need a Transparent Yellow pigment that hasn't been around for a hundred years (1900). The outlawed Indian Yellow Brown Side, from cow urine, from mango leaf feed cows in India. This would mix with a Transparent Ultramarine Blue to a neutral dark. We artists were deprived from 1900 to 2005. Idiochromatic.
  CHROMIUM, green, rare crystal, allochromatic.

43,
ZIRCON, ZrSiO₄, H7, SG-4.6, tetragonal system ends with a four sided pyramid, transparent. Clear to red-brown opaque.
  ZIRCONIUM, full spectrum of pale colors, additional heat makes yellow and blue crystals.
Brittle, idiochromatic, the transparent crystals are doubly refractive and rival the diamond in dispersion. 

44,
SERANDITE, Na[Mg₂+,Ca]2Si₃O₈[0H], H4.5, SG-3.5, triclinic.
  MANGANESE, red-orange, pale, opaque. A weak manganese color with two electrons gone, idiochromatic.

45,
OLIVINE, [Mg,Fe]2SiO₄, H7, SG-3.3, orthorhombic crystals from brown-green to green.
  MANGANESE, red-orange opaque, shows up as brown when mixed with yellow-green, like the light color wheel, idiochromatic.
  IRON, yellow-green, transparent, with two minerals, iron making a transparent yellow-green and manganese making an opaque split-analogous red-orange, what you get is a transparent yellow-green going to opaque brown in the same crystal, or anywhere in between, the peridot series. 

46,
KYANITE, Al₂SiO₅, H7.5 across 4.5 down, SG-3.7, triclinic.
  ALUMINUM, white, pale-green to gray, opaque to translucent. Pleochroistic, (changing colors with direction), transparent light green background when perfect, with a "blue light" stripe, translucent. The aluminum element plays tricks with light and your eyes that no other element can. 

47,
SPODUMENE, LiAlSi₂O₆, H7, SG-3, monoclinic, transparent, ore of Lithium.
  LITHIUM, yellow-green, yellow, orange, red, and a Cool Magenta Standard crystal called "Lilac Kunzite". Clear to pale translucent, idiochromatic. Red-orange phosphorescent, the opposite of the missing cyan. It's mind boggling :)
  ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, enhances iron and chromium.
  IRON, warm green, allochromatic.
  CHROMIUM, cool green, allochromatic, works well with aluminum, as in the Corundum ruby compound. 

48,

LEUCITE, KAlSi₂O₆, H5.5, SG-2.5, tetragonal, opaque, white.
  ALUMINUM, very pale yellow-orange crystal. The aluminum spin on this compound is interference colors on the cut face, like an oil film on water, with orange fluorescence in long-wave ultraviolet light and blue under X-rays. 

49,
ORTHOCLASE, KAlSi₃0₈, H6 STANDARD MOHS', SG-2.5, monoclinic.
  ALUMINUM, pale yellow-orange opaque crystals. The transparent yellow gem (moonstone), has internal light diffusion, another light trick by the inclusion of aluminum. 

50,
BERYL, Be₃Al₂[Si0₃]6, H7.5,SG-2.7, hexagonal crystal system.
  BERYLLIUM element in Beryl crystal, cyan, yellow, idiochromatic.
  ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, idiochromatic,
  IRON, green, yellow-green, yellow, orange, red, scarlet, magenta purple, blue, azure, cyan, turquoise, iron at it's best will display the whole spectrum in Beryl. Allochromatic.
  CHROMIUM, green standard, 12RCW#11, [CCYY] and red, allochromatic.
  MANGANESE, red, allochromatic.
Double elements in yellow 12RCW#1, [YYYY], cyan 12RCW#9, [CCCC], red 12RCW#3, [YYMM], and green 12RCW#11, [CCYY], all standard colors. Yellow (heliodor), magenta (morganite), cyan (aquamarine) and green (emerald).
  ALUMINUM in beryl excepts a lot of foreign chromates, just as it does in the corundum and spodumene compounds, Here an aluminum light trick is found in aquamarine, light cyan is seen from one direction and deep blue from a 90 degree off angle.

51,
EUCLASE, BeASi0₄[0H], H6.7, SG-3, monoclinic system.
  BERYLLIUM, standard color cyan, 12RCW#9, [CCCC], yellow to cyan, idiochromatic, transparent. 52,

GROSSULAR, Ca₃Al₂[SiO₄]3, H7, SG-3.5, cubic, garnet group.
  ALUMINUM, standard color orange, #2,[YYYM], yellow to orange, centering to brown, idiochromatic, transparent,
  CHROMIUM, green, allochromatic.

53, 
LABRACORITE, NaAlSi₃O₈-CaAl₂Si₂O₈, H6, SG-2.5, sodium-aluminum series of plagioclase feldspars.
  ALUMINUM, blue to cyan color plus an unusual effect called schiller, the inside glow of cyan color moves with you, playing off included lamellae minerals. Idiochromatic, opaque.
  IRON, yellow to red, the allochromatic intrusion of hematite reverses the spectrum to show it's opposite colors. 

54,

SPESSARTINE, Mn₃Al₂[SiO₄]3, H7, SG-4, cubic, garnet family.
  ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, turning red to orange with manganese.
  MANGANESE, orange to red, transparent, idiochromatic.
  IRON, red, transparent, allochromatic, adding transparent red until it's a deep transparent red. This is only a 30 degree span of color with no complementary intrusion toward centering. This is the light "almandine garnet".

55,
ALMANDINE, Fe₃Al₂[SiO4]3, H7, SG-4, cubic, transparent, Garnet.
  ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, added to the red of iron, idiochromatic.
  IRON, red, idiochromatic, transparent.
  CHROMIUM, red, transparent, allochromatic. These two elements together make a transparent red and transparent red deeply saturated. This red is so deep and spectrum dark it has to be very thinly sliced to see any color at all. "Deeply saturated" means a transparent to opaque color skipping translucent.

56,
EPIDOTE. Ca₂[Al,Fe₃+]3[SiO₄]3[OH], H7, SG-3.4, monoclinic.
  ALUMINUM, yellow-orange, transparent, idiochromatic, pleochroistic directional change of color.
  IRON, yellow-green Epidote has a unique coloring system, combining split analogous colors yellow-green and orange, through brown to a warm neutral dark transparent color. 

57,
VESUVIANITE, Ca10Mg₂Al₄[SiO₄]5[Si₂07]2[OH]4, H7, SG-3.3,   MAGNESIUM, wants to go dark and opaque, or transparent, either way, it does it with flair.
  ALUMINUM, yellow, transparent, standard 12RCW#1 [YYYY], and blue, transparent, standard 12RCW#7 [MMCC], centering to neutral. Crystals in the tetragonal system, some masses in the orange or azure range. By centering yellow to brown, the three analogous colors of this gem, yellow-green, yellow and orange go to brown. On the other side of this analogous range is blue, blue crystals were found in Norway. Idiochromatic.
  CHROMIUM, green, allochromatic. 

58,
APOPHYLLITE, KCa₄Si₈O₂O[F,OH] 8H₂O, H4.5, SG-2.
  White to pale cool green, opaque, idiochromatic, non-metallic mineral. 

59,
TOPAZ, Al₂[F,OH]₂SiO₄, H8 STANDARD MOHS', SG-3.53, orthorhombic crystal system.
ALUMINUM, yellow, mostly orange, red and magenta, some azure crystals come from Zimbabwe.
Idiochromatic colors of aluminum under high pressure. 

60,
ELBAITE, Na[Li,Al]3Al₆[BO₃]3Si₆₁₈[OH]4, H7.25, SG-3.05, trigonal, tourmaline group, transparent, pyroelectricity w/heat.
  IRON, green, red, and pink Magenta, brown.
  LITHIUM, yellow, magenta, idiochromatic.
  ALUMINUM, yellow, blue, idiochromatic.
  MANGANESE, orange and red, allochromatic.
  COPPER, green, cyan, allochromatic. Many Elbaite crystals show more than one color in a clear rainbow ordered spectrum. 

61,
LAPIS LAZULI, H5-6, SG-2.8, or higher if pyrite is included. This is the Standard Color for ultramarine blue opaque, 12RCW#7, [MMCC], an ancient pigment. A rock of many compounds. Lazurite, a sodium aluminum silicate with sulfide, deep blue crystals. Hauyne, Sodalite, (a sodium aluminum silicate with sodium chloride that occurs in crystals and masses), and Nosean. Lapis lazuli is a contact metamorphic mineral found in limestone and granite, the best is found in Afghanistan, from ancient times until today.

62,
TURQUOISE, CuAl₆(PO₄]4[OH]8.4-5H₂O, H5.5, SG-2.7, triclinic.
  ALUMINUM, transparent.
  COPPER, turquoise standard color, 12RCW#10, [CCCY], transparent. Transparent turquoise crystals are rare, it's usually found in opaque masses, idiochromatic. 

63,
WAVELLITE, Al₃[PO₄]2[OH,F]3.5H₂O, H3.5, SG-2.36, orthorhombic crystal system, acicular, like the needles of Rutile suspended in clear crystal, only these needle crystals form a dense rock like mass.
  ALUMINUM, yellow, brown, blue, centering standard, transparent. Aluminum really does it big this time, each needle starts at the center radiating outward, concentrical ringed bands form around the center, each band ending as a cleavage line, twenty or so bands per complete needle crystal. The band itself can change from clear transparent to opaque white while at the center, the second band range is transparent yellow crystal, than brown, than blue. From brown to blue, the crystal can change into an aggregate and lose it's crystal properties.
THIS MINERAL PHOSPHATE SHOWS THE CENTERING OF YELLOW TO BROWN AND BROWN TO BLUE, LIKE MY REAL COLOR WHEEL FOR PIGMENTS.

64,
BRAZILIANITE, NaAl₃[PO₄]2[0H]4, H5.5, SG-2.9, monoclinic.
  ALUMINUM, yellow, cool, transparent, idiochromatic. 

65,
AUTUNITE, Ca[UO₂]2[PO₄]2.10-12H₂O, H2, SG-3.1, tetragonal.
  URANIUM, yellow, translucent, Idiochromatic uranium, warm to cool yellow, pigment in the 1940's, fluorescent yellow. 

66,
VIVIANITE, Fe₃[P0₄].8H₂0, Hardness 1.5, SG-2.68, monoclinic.
  IRON, standard color for cyan, 12RCW#9, [CCCC], transparent, idiochromatic. Cyan to green crystals.
Laminae fibrous, long thin radiated crystals, transparent clear when first mined, turning cyan with light exposure. 

67,
LEGRANDITE, Zn₂[AsO₄][OH],H20 H5, SG-4, monoclinic family.
  ZINC, yellow, cool, transparent, idiochromatic.
  ARSENIC, standard yellow, 12RCW#1, [YYYY], transparent, idiochromatic. Bright yellow idiochromatic, with zinc and arsenic. Arsenic taking it to the warm side in the luminous shadows. Probably the strongest yellow color in crystal form. 

68,
FLUORAPATITE, Ca₅[P0₄]3F, H5 STANDARD MOHS', SG-3.2, apatite family, hexagonal system, transparent.
Yellow, yellow-green, green, cyan, blue, purple and a violet close to magenta, [MMM,1/2M-1/2C. Two-thirds of the color wheel without any metallic elements in the compound. 

69,
PYROMORPHITE, Pb₅[P0₄]3C₁, H3., SG-6.5, hexagonal system.
  LEAD, cool yellow to bright yellow.
LEAD MAKES TWO OPPOSITION COLOR CRYSTALS, THIS YELLOW PYROMORPHITE AND CUMENGEITE BLUE. MY PIGMENT CRYSTAL REAL COLOR WHEEL IS THE REAL COLOR WHEEL.
Yellow to yellow-green in the shadows, translucent, some times found on azurite, the opposite color. 

70,
MIMETITE, Pb₅[AsO₄] 3CAsO₁, H3.5, SG-7.24 monoclinic, transparent.
  LEAD, yellow, cool, idiochromatic.
  ARSENIC, yellow to orange, idiochromatic.
Cool yellow, warm yellow and orange analogous colored crystals are found around the world. 

71,
VANADINITE, Pb₅[VO₄]3C₁, H3, SG-6.8, hexagonal system. VANADIUM, scarlet, transparent, idiochromatic.
  LEAD, standard red, 12RCW#3, [YYMM], transparent, idiochromatic. Vanadium, a rare metallic element, compounded with lead makes a red transparent crystal. 

72,
GYPSUM, CaSO₄.2H₂0, H2 STANDARD MOHS', SG-2.32, monoclinic, white, idiochromatic yellow and green to a centered brown. 

73,
CELESTINE, SrSO₄, H3.5, SG-4, orthorhombic, ore of strontium.
  STRONTIUM, blue or yellow, idiochromatic, opposites.
THIS CRYSTAL IS ONE OF MANY THAT PROVES WITH NATURE; THE REAL COLOR WHEEL HAS THE SAME THIRTY SIX, TWENTY FOUR, TWELVE, SIX AND THREE COLOR SETUP, BOTH IN LIGHT AND PIGMENT.

74,
BARITE, BaS0₄, H3.5, SG-4.5, orthorhombic. Ore of barium.
  BARIUM, yellow to yellow-orange and blue to azure (Cobalt), opposite colors on the Real Color Wheel. transparent to translucent, idiochromatic.

CHROMATES
 

75,
CROCOITE, PbCrO₄, H2.5, SG-5.99, monoclinic, transparent.
  LEAD, no color, transparent.
  CHROMIUM, red, transparent, idiochromatic.MOLYBDATES 

76,
WULFENITE, PbM4, H2.75, SG-7, tetragonal.
  LEAD, no color, transparent.
  MOLYBDENUM, yellow, orange, red, transparent, idiochromatic. 

78,
WOLFRAMITE, [Fe,Mn] WO₄, H4.5, SG-7.5, monoclinic.
IRON, red, matching the manganese, iron can be, and can center any color to a neutral dark, red dark is in the yellow dark of the Real Color Wheel, and YELLOW CENTERS THROUGH BROWN. Idiochromatic.
MANGANESE, red, transparent, idiochromatic, Manganese and iron, two red elements making a very deep red-brown that looks black, found with white and clear quartz.
 

Basalt is the most common of the earth's volcanic rocks, its crystals are continuous and elongated. Basalt magma is sometimes as hard as glass, but rarely. Ancient Hawaiians found it on the highest interior facing cliffs of Haleakala, the volcano on Maui.

Syenite forms in silicate-less magma, consisting typically of feldspar and hornblende.

Quartz is the most common crystal mineral, oxygen and silicon, it has the hardness of H7. Quartz is found in ore mineral veins and needs a hollow space to form, As rocks and veins weather, quartz is freed of it's matrix and breaks loose to form sand. Cemented sand is sandstone, intruding magma going through sandstone will again form ore and quartz.

Granite is also igneous or fire intrusive. It's composed of quartz and feldspar, Granite magma intrudes limestone or dolomite and forms marble. Marble is heat and calcium of limestone, plus calcium magnesium of dolomite, plus silica. Veins or lodes of ore in marble include, tin, copper, uranium, iron, zinc and lead. Marble is metamorphic limestone.

Granite, intrudes with its hottest leading edge forming cassiterite, tin. The copper sulfides form second, chalcopyrite is the primary copper ore formed in quartz. Third would be cobalt, nickel and arsenic. Than the zinc-lead zone, with zinc sulfide as sphalerite ore, lead sulfide is galena ore, than silver. Finally, the iron rich zone with iron carbonate as siderite ore, the dominate mineral of the world.

Feldspar is common in granite magma intruding on sandstone sedimentary rock, it hardens into a crystal softer than quartz. Feldspar can be morphasized with pressure to a harder crystal like tourmaline or topaz.

Feldspar is the second most common mixed mineral silicate crystal, made from potassium, sodium and calcium, an aluminosilicate. It contains aluminum in the ore, bauxite, clay and rock. Clay is hydrated silicates of aluminum.

Potash feldspar is microdyne, add iron and it's red to green, green amazonite was mined and used as a pigment on murals in 1300 B/C, in Egypt.

Plagioclase feldspar is sodium and calcium.

Kaolinite, is clay and chalk after feldspar. Carbonic acid, is present in rainwater or vapors, this pseudomorphs the kaolinite from feldspar.

Porcelain is made from kaolinite clay and is mined in Cornwall, England.

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock, an intact mineral of quartz sand. It's cemented together by the commonest cement, calcium carbonate.

Quartzite is metamorphic sandstone, an intact mineral or solution of suspended silica growing on quartz crystal, sand is broken quartz crystal.

Limestone is a sedimentary mineral cemented by calcium carbonate and is made of once living organisms, the dissolved mineral is calcite. In this same category of sedimented rock is salt and gypsum. Powered and heated, "calcined" limestone makes plaster of Paris and mural mortar, we'll get to slaking lime in the mural chapter. (New Window)

Marble is metamorphic or recrystallized limestone, being metamorphic is being made with pressure.

Gypsum's are crystals of hydrous calcium sulfate, crystal deposits formed as precipitates from sea water or in limestone. These circulating waters contain sulfuric acid generated by oxidation of sulfur ore minerals.

Gypsum crystals are called selenite when there clear, alabaster, when there translucent and fibrous, satin-spar, when there opaque and bendable,

Gypsum heated forms sulfur dioxide gas and sulfuric acid. Heated in the presence of lead, either with fumes or in a natural combinations it will form basic lead carbonate, called lead white. Gypsum, after being heated loses most of its sulfur and becomes plaster of Paris, lime plaster is better to paint on.

Hornfels are a combination of clay and fine quartz sand, forming silt which makes shale. Pressure forms hard rock hornfels.

Diatomite is diatomaceous earth, a porous chalk like material, a sedimentary rock that forms on a sea floor or lake bottoms. It's a form of opaline silica, microscopic plants secrete silica to form hard shells of opal. Diatomite is a common filler in paint and paper.

Fluorite is crystal of calcium fluoride, found in veins with the metallic ores of lead and silver, or with barite, gypsum, calestite and dolomite, or by itself.

Fluorite forms a full color wheel, it's the only non-metallic element that has this capability. There's also a luminescence fluorite which emits a visible light when crushed, heated or radiated. England mines "Blue John" which was carved into bowls, cups and vases. The Chinese mined a green variety and carved statues.

Barite is crystal of barium sulfate, called heavy spar, it has no coloring power by itself. Barite is a non-metallic mineral crystal mined in England, filling the cavities in limestone. As barium it's an extender in lead based and cadmium paints.

Celestite is strontium sulfate, the ore of strontium. This strontium element supplies "the rockets red glare".

Halite is sodium chloride, rock salt.

Borax is found in dry lakes as in Tibet, it was called "tin-cal", a Chinese word. Boron is also found in boric acid and in the mineral sassolite, mined in Tuscany, Italy. It can be found in a mineral called tincalconite and ten others. Borax and shellac form the paint called "water shellac". Boron hardens metals, and makes soaps and medicine. Molten borax will dissolve insoluble metal oxides and is the flux for soldering, brazing and welding metals.

Trona is soda ash in its hydrous state as sodium carbonate. In its anhydrous state, it's soda ash. 1/5 soda ash and 4/5 sand quartz, make glass, with enough heat.

Sodalite is sodium aluminum silicate with sodium chloride, it forms in massive crystals, like over an acre.

SULFUR is abundant in gypsum and as an anhydrite from sea water, it is also found in limestone to some extent. Sulfur was used as an insecticide in 1000 B/C, ancient Greece gathered it in Delphi, from a deep crevice exuding sulfurous gases from Mount Parnassus. Sulfur burns a blue flame and emits sulfur dioxide gas.

SULFURIC ACID is sodium carbonate and is used in making glass. It was once called "oil of vitriol", a di-basic acid of sulfur made from sulfur tri-oxide. To "vitriolize", means to treat with sulfuric acid, it gives a glassy appearance to metallic sulfates; white vitriol is made from the lead or zinc ore, blue vitriol is made from copper, green vitriol is made from copperas, a ferrous sulfate is iron.

SULFIDE contains the free radical or more electropositive element, it effects changes with other ores.

SULFATE, to treat with a salt of sulfuric acid will make a sulfate. Lead sulfate compounds form on lead, you "sulfatize" when you roast galena, the lead ore that contains sulfur.

SULFUROUS ACID is dissolved sulfur di-oxide gas in water, to form salts called sulfites.

SULFITE is the salt of sulfurous acid which makes the cadmium sulfides from yellow to red. Arsenic sulfides are yellow-green, yellow, orange and red. Copper sulfides are green to blue. Lead sulfides range from white to red. Oil coal-tar colors go from hansa yellow to ultramarine blue moving around the magenta side.

CEMENT, like in Portland Cement, is made of lime, from heated gypsum, sand and alumina, the oxide of aluminum present in clay. That makes cement hydraulic, the clay absorbs water and the cement sets quickly, too quickly for mural work. Heated gypsum burns off sulfur as it becomes lime, any traces left behind would also be bad for a murals pigments. So don't use gypsum lime for murals, use limestone lime. Soak slake the lime from six months to twenty years, the longer the better and add 3 sand to 1 lime to make cement. Use a fine sand or marble powder for the last coats, three coats are better than one and six coats are better than three.

CEMENT FONDU is a cement with a high aluminum content.

KEENE CEMENT has alum salts added and makes a very hard mass.

CASEIN CEMENT, casein added to cement makes it harder and set faster.

HIDE GLUE CEMENT Add less than one percent hide glue into the cement to slow setting from ten minutes to two hours.

OXYCHLORIDE CEMENT is also called, PLASTIC MAGNESIA. It's calcined magnesite, it's calcined just short of becoming magnesia (as limestone becomes lime), and made into cement with a strong solution of magnesium chloride. This is casting stone.

ANTIMONY native is Naples yellow, a very early pigment replenished in the Vesuvius eruption of 79 A/D. Antimony oxide was made artificially since the early eleventh century. Antimony sulfides are found in the mineral galance stibnite, in Italy and Human, China.

ARSENIC, Arsenopyrite is arsenic's main ore. Arsenic disulfides are red realgar and yellow orpiment, both were used in the early Egyptian days.

COPPER ORE native, is brittle unless it's heated or annealed, as the ancient Anatolias did in 6000 B/C. The ancient Eskimos ground fish hooks out of this native copper. Copper pitch ore was used all through the Neolithic Period.

CUPRITE is a cubic transparent ruby-red crystal, formed as a secondary mineral from exposed copper ore. TENORITE is black copper oxide.

CHALCOCITE is another secondary mineral of copper, found in metallic sulfides, precipitating in still waters as a soluble sediment.

CHALCANTHITE is retrieved from the chalcocite sediment, this is the basis of the ancient blue vitriol, and it made blue and green frit. Notice, it's the complementary color of cuprite. I'll point this out while proving my color theory and color wheel oppositions.

ANTLERITE is copper's chief ore mineral, it's a copper sulfate.

CHALCOPYRITE is the primary ore formed in quartz.

CHRYSOCOLLA has a hardness of 2.5, it's a light cyan colored ore that the Egyptians wore as jewelry, they matched this color with copper and tin glass frit. Small scarabs were found glazed and considered as good luck pieces, it was a sample of the color pigment the Phoenician's sold on the ancient world market.

MALACHITE is a secondary mineral ore of copper carbonate, a native green pigment when crushed.

AZURITE is another hydrated salt of copper carbonate, this one's a deep cyan color (deep ultramarine blue deep), it was also used as a pigment all throughout the ancient years. Soak azurite long enough and it will turn green, ammonia turns copper blue. It was the basis for colors from cyan to ultramarine.

ACETATE is a salt by acetic acid or vinegar. A hydrated copper acetate was said to be the first artificial color. It was made by the Romans in 1000 B/C and was called vertigris. They would have had to suspend Egypt's chalcocite sediment in vinegar to precipitate a salt. Egypt had murals of wine harvests 2500 years earlier. I suspect Egypt made it first, before Rome, since they did so much with copper.

PHTHALOCYANINE is copper with one of its atoms removed to make a non-metallic pigment. This pigment doesn't react to sulfur as metallic copper does, it's transparent and covers from yellow-green to cyan. This is perhaps the most important color ever discovered. PB60 anthraquinone is transparent ultramarine blue.

GOETHITE is iron hydroxide crystals found yellow to brown in earthy masses, it's an ore of iron that contains the natural yellow ferric oxide pigments.

IRON OXIDE ranges from white calcite, yellow ocher, sienna, red oxide, brown and green umber to black. Adding heat (calcined), brings out the red side and adds a transparent quality if silicates are involved, as in sienna. Magnesium is the purple side of caput mortuum, present in iron.

HEMATITE is iron ore, heat it to 1830 degrees and get iron. Hematite naturally crushed and oxidized leaves a red streak powder that was the stone-age red and Egyptian rouge.

PYRITE is iron sulfide and sulfuric acid, dissolved in water to leave behind limonite. Fifty four percent of pyrite is sulfur, decomposed pyrite is hydrated iron oxide.

LIMONITE is a secondary ore of iron that forms yellow to brown oxides. RCW colors.

SIDERITE is iron carbonate, going from yellow to brown.

CALCITE is a native iron pigment mineral that is white. Iron will make all colors.

CALEDONITE is a green earth iron silicate mineral.

GALENITE or GALENA. Galena is lead sulfide mineral, native, and it contains sulfur. Roasting the galena ore produces a basic lead carbonate, white lead sulfate. Also formed is a water soluble salt compound of lead arsenate.

CERUSSITE is a native lead carbonate mineral, white lead.

VANADINITE washes to lead vanadate, a red-orange crystal.

WULFENITE is a transparent orange crystal.

LEAD ACETATE is a colorless crystal formed by acetic acid touching lead, it is water soluble and called sugar of lead. Lead acetate can be used as a siccative.

LEAD IS CORRODED with fumes of acetate and carbonic acid in steam. It forms a white lead sulfide or oxidized white lead and contains the free-radical that effects so many pigments. This is artificial basic lead carbonate, our white pigment. Hydrogen peroxide will stabilize and remove the free-radical, turning lead sulfide to lead sulfate, a stable white lead.

LEAD CARBONATE is formed by mixing in solution, lye and carbonic acid with lead acetate. It's the whitest lead but not as opaque as white lead oxide.

CINNABAR is the ore of mercury, mercuric sulfide, the red crushed ore is the color vermilion. Cinnabar is found in crystal and masses in South Central Spain and in China. China did more carving in it than painting with it. The rest of the world found it a very useful pigment. The Carthaginians and the Romans both worked the Spanish mines.

TIN ORE is found in Cassiterite, a tin dioxide, the principle ore of tin, along with wood tin. The symbol for tin is Sn, for stannum.

Tin ore is found in rock forming minerals like feldspar, quartz and mica. First, tin was exposed on cliff faces, where the rocks eroded exposing the veins. Eventually it entered streams and rivers to be stream mined. Tin was mined in Eastern Greece, ancient Anatolia, Upper Syria, the Tigris Euphrates Valley, Afghanistan, the Mekong River and England.

TIN OXIDE is black and fires white, mix tin oxide and cobalt oxide with heat and you get cerulean blue. You can get a similar blue by mixing and firing tin and copper chalcanthite with quartz sand like the Egyptians did, this made their highly prized frit colors, which they traded through the Phoenician's, ancient world wide. Smelt tin ore and copper ore and you'll get bronze. Bronze is the metal the Egyptians made their saws out of to cut the limestone for their great pyramids.

ZINC: The zinc primary sulfide mineral is water soluble, and is often found with galena.

ZINC SILIATE: Zinc SILIATE comes in a variety of colors, transparent yellow and green, opaque white, yellow, green, red, brown and black. All these colors were found in the Franklin Mines of New Jersey.

ZINC OXIDE: Zinc oxide is called zincite and is colored white, yellow, orange and red.

6,000 B/C- Neolithic communities like Anatolia hammered copper, Copper works were found in Catal Huyuk, a culture in Turkey.

6,000 B/C- Eskimo's N W of Hudson Bay had copper fish hooks made from glacial copper.

5,000 B/C- Pre-dynastic Egypt mined gold, silver, chalcedony, (a milk colored quartz), chrysoprase, a nickel stained apple-green chalcedony, green feldspar, (light-green amazonite), green fluorite, malachite. Crushed malachite was their green eye shadow paint. Hematite was red rouge. Lapis lazuli was jewelry.

4,700 B/C- Egypt's IV Dynasty smelted bronze.

4,000 B/C- Egypt's casting gold, copper and bronze, bronze saws cut the blocks of lime stone for the pyramids of Giza. They burnt gypsum and limestone for plaster to cover walls, make columns, and as supports for murals. An Iron and nickel alloy knife was made and found, probably from a meteorite.

3,400 B/C- Afghanistan and Mesopotamia were mining lapis lazuli.

3,000 B/C- Galena was found in every country from Morocco to Greece, from Russia to China. Neolithic miners dug for flint in England, a small figurine of a pregnant woman was found at the back of a limestone cave. Old Kingdom Egypt was painting murals of miners, smelters, farmers and "the good life".

2,700 B/C- Gold found in the Royal Caves of Ur, sprinkled on the dead.

2,000 B/C- The Nubia people mined at least a 1,000 tons of gold for Egypt, that's why I suspect the top of the Great Pyramid was covered with gold. The Phoenician's smelted galena and silver, bronze was all over the Mediterranean and China.

1,500 B/C The Hittites of Anatolia smelted iron, Zinc was smelted from lead.

1,350 B/C King Tutankhamen, of the XVIII Dynasty had smelted tools of iron, a lifelike gold casting of him was in his tomb.

1,100 B/C The Phoenician city of Gadez, became a tin market. 1,000 B/C Greece was smelting bronze.

600 B/C Clay plate painting of "miners" at Corinth, Greece.

Here's the mineral palette back when Sandarac, (Sandracca) was King and Zeus had a son named Castor. Castor is also the brightest star in Gemini. Castor oil was added to Sandracca (sandarac) about 2000 B/C, to soften, extend and make it pliable. Sandracca was a major medium into the A/D's, when mastic, wax, egg, and oil started replacing it.

ANTIMONY GALANCE, stibnite ore was roasted or found native.

GYPSUM, native calcium sulfate, calcined 250 degrees.

IRON, native ore calcite, oxide.

LEAD, Lead white, "ceruse", basic sulfate of lead, native or burnt galena ore.

LEAD, "White vitriol", made with sulfuric acid fumes.

LEAD, Lead white carbonate oxide, made by acetic acid fumes and carbonic acid fumes on lead in a closed container.

MAGNESIUM, carbonate found native, the whitest ore pigment.

MICA. Silicate laminated natural, native. Japanese pigment.

SHELL, powered.

TIN. Calcined tin oxide.

ZINC oxide found native.

ZINC "White Vitriol", made with sulfuric acid fumes.

BONE and HORN. Roman "atramentum", charred deep black.

CARBON. Oil soot, lamp black. IRON. Iron oxide, native.

MANGANESE. Black manganese dioxide native, ancient "pyrolusite".

ROCK, Slate gray, crushed.

SULFUR. Ultramarine ash, the first washing contains some matrix rock, this leaves a cool opaque gray.

ARSENIC. Orpiment, arsenic sulfide, native, Egypt early, 3000 B/C.

ANTIMONY. Naples yellow, native, 500 B/C, replenished 79 A/D in the Vesuvius eruption.

IRON. Yellow ocher natural, "minette", "sil", "chamois", heated to gold ocher, flesh ocher and red.

IRON. Raw sienna, heated to burnt sienna and translucent vermilion.

IRON. Amberg yellow, a very bright fresco yellow ocher no longer available, except at Kramer in Germany, native.

LEAD. Lead oxide white heated to a cool yellow, "Massicot", "King's Yellow", "Cassel Yellow", lead also heated to orange, red and brown.

LEAD-TIN. Lead-tin Yellow is a light cool yellow often mistaken for Naples Yellow.

ORGANIC-ANIMAL. Indian yellow is magnesium euxanthate, an early dye used in, sandarac, (Sandracca), mastic, cera colla and oil pigment until 1899. Made from cows urine, India. Yellow to brown and brown, orange to yellow, transparent.

ORGANIC-PLANT. Tree sap, "gamboge" translucent, alcohol base, Thailand.

ORGANIC-PLANT. "Turmeric" root, "curcuma" root, transparent yellow to brown, India, Asia.

ORGANIC-PLANT. "Saffron", flower power, bright yellow, India.

TIN. calcined from white to pale yellow.

Painting on Location's Magdalene c/o Tan Swee Ming wrote: Ni Hao! (means: How do you do.) Where did the word Yellow come from? Ellie Clemans from the Painting on Location listserver sent us this information. The Latin word "hellus", which came from the Greek word "khloos", which came from the Sanskrit words "hari" for yellow and "hiranya" for gold.

ARSENIC. Realgar, arsenic di-sulphide, native, Egypt 3000 B/C. "Risalgallo", Roman, red-orange clear crystal.

IRON. In clay, burnt sienna, high in silicic acid until calcined from raw sienna, than it's high in silica and is transparent.

TIN, calcined from pale yellow to pale orange.

ZINC. Zincite, native zinc oxide, ore of zinc, a brittle mineral ranging in color from yellow, orange to deep-red, opaque.

The word "orange" comes from the Sanskrit "naranga" which was related to the Tamil word "naru" meaning fragrant.

COPPER. Cupric crystals native, transparent red. That is the opposite of the copper pigment color.

HEMATITE IRON, ore, native red streaks of iron oxide, where abrasion has ground off hematite ore in place.

IRON, in clay, "cinabrese", Cennini described a native light vermilion red that is now exhausted.

IRON, in clay, "Armenian bole", red ocher.

IRON, in clay, "sinopia", native red oxide, Roman 100 B/C

IRON, in clay, "sinopis", a very light red ocher from Asia Minor, exhausted.

LEAD. "Minium", red lead oxide is made by heating white lead in the presence of air, turns dark in fresco as all leads do, this was a mastic, oil and wax pigment that is unaffected by alkalis. Phoenician, 1000 B/C, Greek, Roman, 500 B/C.

MERCURY. "Cinnabar" native, is the ore of mercury. "Vermilion" natural was one of the two most prized and expensive pigments of the ancients, not counting gold. Mercuric Sulfide.

ORGANIC-PLANT SAP, Brazil wood lake, blood red transparent. "Dragon's Blood", ruby red lac, Singapore, as ancient as karmes.

ORGANIC-PLANT FLOWER. Safflower red, "Carthame".

ZINC. Zincite red, native red oxide zinc ore.

The word "red" came from the Sanskrit word "rudhiras".

COBALT, native is a pale violet-magenta color. Cobaltite is a native mineral ore, cobalt arsenic sulfide, it's a cool magenta color.

IRON, in clay, "Pozzuoli Red". A rosy opaque magenta, Roman. Very good in fresco, it hardens like a natural cement.

ORGANIC ANIMAL. "Carmine", cochineal insect, a transparent dyestuff precipitated on clay, also roasted darker. "Karmes" another insect with similar color, 2000 B/C or earlier. "Nacarat carmine" is the highest quality color.

ORGANIC PLANT ROOT. "Madder lake", boiled Rubia Tinctoriun root on clay or transparent water based in wax soap, Egypt, Greece. Light rose to dark magenta, not for fresco.

TIN. Highly heated tin oxide makes a pale magenta. 

IRON. Burnt green earth, ferrous hydroxide and silicic acid, transparent like sienna.

IRON, "Caput mortuum" is red ocher or oxide calcined, or native.

IRON MANGANESE. Raw umber, "umbra", "terre d'ombre", Manganese dioxide and iron hydroxide. Calcined raw umber makes burnt umber.

MANGANESE. Manganese violet oxide, native.

ORGANIC-ANIMAL. "Tyrian" is Greek, "Ostrum" is Roman, "Byzantium", are all names for purple, from the Murex shellfish family. The color ranged from pink to blue transparent. According to Pliny it was the celebrated "Imperial Purple" of the Romans.

COBALT. Black oxide of cobalt fires cobalt blue. China 2500 B/C on pottery, 500 B/C Roman, maybe earlier, they made a smalt after the Egyptian frit of copper.

COBALT-TIN. Cobaltous stannate, cobalt and tin oxide in potash glass, light cobalt blue colored smalt, Egyptian or Greek or Roman.

COPPER. "Azurite" natural, blue to cyan, Egypt 3000 B/C, "chessylite", hydrous copper carbonate.

COPPER. Copper hydroxide plus copper carbonate, "blue verditer", "mountain blue", "Bremen blue".

COPPER. chalcanthite, "Blue vitriol", copper salts and sulfuric acid fumes make a copper sulfate.

IRON. Pompiian blue lake, a ferris-cyan, Roman 100 B/C.

SULFUR. Lapis lazuli native, 3000 B/C, sodium sulfosilicate ore.

COPPER. Chrysocolla, a native copper silicate, first a pigment in Egypt, then a jewel, glass-frit then became a pigment of the same color.

COPPER. "Egyptian blue" 3000 B/C, copper silicate transparent, "Pozzuoli blue".

COPPER. Frit, copper salts fused in potassium silica glass, Egypt 3000 B/C.

COPPER. Verdigris, hydrated copper acetate crystals, water or resin soluble. This color is usually listed under green, (vert) means green. Since this was the first artificial color made by the Romans, I made some. Using materials I knew they had I put copper in ammonia, this turned the ammonia blue, a few drops of acetate acid (vinegar) and the color changed, it precipitated a light cyan-green salt. Mixing the salt with damar, I painted with it, and, well it does go a little farther, I mixed the salts in sulfuric acid and it turned clear. I was stirring the mix with my steel palette knife and it put a copper plating on it! I wonder if the Romans ever rust proofed any of their iron. I remember reading once, that at in an Egyptian excavation they found some clay pots with holes in them for wires, the archaeologists thought they were using them as storage batteries for plating, I believe it.

ORGANIC-PLANT. Indigo, India. Woad, England. Both transparent cyan dyes, Indigo was the better.

ORGANIC-PLANT. Check out an interesting article in Scientific American's Archeology Magazine August 2000 about Mayan fresco and the cyan pigment they were using. It was Indigo (a plant based dye) bonded to clay through a process of baking the indigo and clay at a specific temperature. The indigo was then permanently bonded to the clay and the indigo-clay powder was used as a permanent blue color for fresco. This magazine is currently at Barnes and Noble, if you want to check out the article.

COPPER, Malachite, ore of copper, copper carbonate. Crushed into pigment.

IRON-COPPERAS. ferrous sulfate, "green vitriol", transparent.

IRON. Ferrous hydroxide plus silicic acid, native, "Veronese green earth", "tirolean", "bohemian", translucent.

ACID- Boric acid is a very mild acid, as is acetic acid. Carbonates and sulfides of metals are sensitive to mineral acids. Acid vapors and weak acids bleach lapis lazuli and syn. ultramarine blue, a colloidal sulfur. Acid liberates hydrogen ions, an electrically unbalanced or charged atom, Hydrochloric acid is violently caustic on metals.

Sulfuric acid is weaker than hydrochloric acid.

ALKALI- Alkali or base, is caustic and reactive, sodium hydroxide is caustic soda or lye, both lye and ammonia are strong alkalis. Alkali yields to hydroxyl [OH] ions, the opposite of acid. Sal soda is a sodium carbonate or washing soda or soda ash, it's weaker but it will still dissolve wool and react with oils fats and wax. Sodium bicarbonate or sodium acid carbonate is baking soda, the dry mix of alkali and acid neutralize each other when there hydrated, and carbon dioxide is set free. Borax is sodium tetraborate, a mild alkaline salt that's used as a flux with glass.

ALUM- A double sulfate of aluminum and potassium crystal, a 5% solution will harden hide glue, gelatin and all proteins. It makes cement hard, and is a mortar for dyeing textiles. It's an astringent, alkali.

ANHYDROUS- To lose all water, including crystallizing waters.

ANHYDRITE- A mineral, calcium sulfate.

ANILINE- An oily liquid first obtained from indigo, used as a basis for aniline dyes, today coal-tar is the base.

ATOM- The smallest unit constituent of an molecule containing protons, neutrons and electrons, the number and arrangement of which determine the element.

AZO- Unsulfonated dyestuffs, diazonium salt with a phenol, Hansa Yellow.

CADMIUM- A metallic element that looks like tin. Chromite cadmium from lemon yellow through, yellow light, yellow medium, yellow deep, yellow extra deep, yellow orange, orange, red scarlet, red light, red medium, red deep to red purple.

CALCINATE- Calcination means to heat, burn or cook, Calcinating a salt of iron makes an iron oxide, slow oxidation is rust.

CROMA- Color saturation of any hue (color).

CHROMITE- The principle ore of chromium containing iron and magnesium.

CHROMITE- A salt of chromous acid, a coloring agent. Chromite white lead, from yellow through orange to red lead.

CHROMATE- A salt of chromic acid with a radical atom that will easily leave its host molecule. To make a chromate, you change a chromogen from colorless to colored. A chromate of lead is red lead. Chrome red, or red lead is basic chromite of lead treated with chromium salts of chromic acid.

CHROMOGEN- A substance that colors when oxidized, forming colored compounds, like Azo.

CHROMIUM- Element, metallic, occurring in compounds to make pigments, a hardening element as with chromium steel. Chromium compounds are chromic acid and its salts, called chromates. First the metallic and acid name, followed by [ATE], sodium sulfate. This is the salt of sulfuric acid and a sodium compound. The salt of acid with fewer atoms to the molecule, ends in [ITE], sodium sulfite, the sodium salt of sulfurous acid. [IC] and [OUS] designate numerical variations in an acid or oxide, [OUS] being smaller and more unstable, these that don't contain their maximum complement of atoms are called unstable. [THIO] means sulfur-bearing, [AZO] means nitrogen-bearing.

CHROME- The adverb for chromium, chrome yellow is composed of chromates of lead, barium, or zinc, Chrome green is made from chromic oxide, chrome red is a basic chromate of lead.

CHROME- A word element meaning color.

CHROMOPHORE- Any chemical group which produces color in a compound as the azo group -N=N-, the structural layout of atoms which is found in many colored compounds.

COMPLIMENTARY COLORS- A color and its opposite on the "real color wheel" will combine to a neutral dark on the pigment color wheel and white on the light color wheel. To find the complimentary by eye use your color reversing image retention. Look at the color swatch in a bright light for 5 seconds, then switch to a blank white paper. The reversed color will appear.

COMPOUNDS- Composed of two or more elements or ingredients. Binary compounds consist of two elements, first named is the metallic or electrically positive, followed by the negative, which ends in [IDE], sodium sulfide is a binary compound of sodium and sulfur, zinc oxide is zinc and oxygen.

CRYSTALLIZATION- with water, as the blue transparent crystals of copper sulfate contain seven molecules of water to each molecule of salt. Without the water it's an anhydrous white powder.

CYANOGEN- A gas with a univalent radical, added to iron gives ferricyanide salt or Prussian blue.

DICHROMIC- A color exhibiting two color phases, usually a transparent color that looks different when white is added as opposed to adding water. Dioxine Purple is Dichromic

DICHROMIC- Chemical, of a compound containing two atoms of chromium.

EFFERVESCENCE- to give off bubbles of gas, as when mixing ammonia and beeswax while making wax soap cera colla.

EFFLORESCENCE- means losing water to air.

ESTER- Ester or salt, containing glycerin is a glyceride. Oil is a glyceride of fatty acid from plants, glycerides in drying oils are unsaturated and combine with oxygen forming insoluble linoxyn.

ESTER- A product formed by the reaction of an acid with alcohol, silicon esters are ethyl silicate (alcohol and silica), volatile. Adding water has a chemical reaction called hydrolysis, producing hydrated silica, a stone preservative that is inorganic and imperishable. This is a complete painting medium, great for outdoor murals. It has an alcohol cleanup until it's dry. Ethyl Silicate is made by Union Carbide Company.

FATTY OILS- Drying, vegetable oils, linseed, poppy and walnut oils dry by absorbing oxygen, siccatives speed up the drying process. All oils turn yellow. Stand oil is thickened without oxygen appears clear but it does yellow. In fact it yellowed more than my cold pressed linseed oil.

FORMALDEHYDE- the best hardener for egg, casein, rabbit hide glue or any protein. A 37 % solution of formaldehyde is called formalin, a 10%solution of formalin is sprayed on the dried protein to harden it. Formalin is a fungicide and prevents mold.

HYDRATION- To lose water as hydrated oxides do when exposed to heat.

HYDROUS- Containing water as in hydrates or hydroxides.

HYGROSCOPIC- means to absorb water from the air, like calcium chloride, alcohol, clay and lye.

INERT- Inert has no action to effect changes to itself.

INORGANIC- Minerals and ores are inorganic and inert.

MASS TONE- The color perceived by laying down a thick coat of pigment.

ORGANIC- Plants and animals are organic. An organic salt is called an ester.

MOLECULES- The smallest physical unit of an element or compound consisting of one or more like atoms in the first case, and two or more different atoms in the second case. Molecules of red iron oxide are; Fe₂,O₃, Fe = iron, O = Oxygen, 2 equals two iron atoms, 3 equals three oxygen atoms. Synthetic resins rearrange the molecules.

RADICALS- Two or more elements hook valences together and act as a single element in a reaction, as [HO] is hydroxyl.

SALTS- Salts are neither acid or base, but they could have those reactions. Salts are produced by action on metal or another salt or by the neutralizing reaction of an acid or base.

Sodium chloride is table salt, it's soluble, inert and neutral, some salts are active. Barium salt is insoluble. Some pigment salts are made by mixing two solution salts together, forming two new products (called double decomposition), one will remain soluble, the other precipitates as a powder, as some pigments do.

Salts of metals categorize themselves in color, nickel is green, copper is blue, cobalt is rose and anhydrous blue, chromium is yellow to dark red and iron is from yellow to brown including red to brown. This note is taken in my color theory of rim and centering colors in elements.

Normal salt of acid is named for the metal than the acid, ending in [ATE]. Sodium sulfate Na₂SO₄ is sodium salt of sulfuric acid, combined. The salt of acid with fewer atoms to the molecule ends with [ITE], sodium sulfite NA₂SO₃. Unstable or unsaturated acids and salts have open hooks and end in [OUS]. Ferrous (iron) oxides are exceptions, these are called "loose linkages".

SICCATIVE- Salts of metal oxides soluble in oil, they speed the absorption of oxygen by oils and dry them faster, 2% maximum is recommended.

SOAP- Made by treating a fat with an alkali, any metallic salt of an acid contained in fat.

SODIUM- A soft metallic element that oxidizes rapidly in moist air, occurring only in combined states.

PHENOL- Carbolic acid, a hydroxyl derivative of benzene, used in organic synthesis. Phenolate, a salt of phenol.

POTASH- Potassium carbonate, obtained from wood ashes. Caustic potash (pot-ashes).

POTASSIUM- Similar to sodium element, used in hard glasses.

POLYMERIZATION- means internal changes.

POTASSIUM BICHROMATE- hardens proteins, it's a fungicide.

REACTION- An irreversible chemical change, as when oil dries.

UNDER TONE- The thin wash color of a pigment, as opposed to

the MASS TONE (from the tube) or TOP TONE (adding opaque white).

VAT PIGMENTS- include, perylenes, Isoindolines, indanthrones, phthalocyanines, and quinacridones.

VALENCE- Valence is a hook on an atom that links two atoms together, the amount of hooks is the valence number. Oxygen has two, carbon has four, the benzene radical has six.